In this module, you will explore the following aspects of using vertebrate animals in research, teaching, and testing:
This module consists of:
After completing this module, you will be able to:
Use of animals by humans is sometimes controversial. Some key ideas related to animal use include:
Controversy about the use of animals in research, teaching, and testing usually focuses on two distinct concepts:
Many attribute the birth of the modern animal rights movement to the 1975 publication of philosopher Peter Singer’s book, Animal Liberation, which focuses on an animal’s capacity to suffer physical pain, loneliness, and fear. Animal rights advocates believe that animals have intrinsic rights that should protect them against use by humans. These include:
Singer contends that animals may only be used in research and testing if the experiment would also be permitted on humans.
As a lot of animal research is conducted as a precursor to studies in human subjects, Singer’s perspective precludes virtually all animal research and testing.
The animal rights movement actively lobbies against the use of animals for:
Some animal rights proponents and organizations believe that illegal and even violent actions are justified by the need to prevent use of, or harm to, animals.
Animal welfare is an older concept. The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, founded in 1866, was the first such organization in North America. Its central principle is that “animals are entitled to kind and respectful treatment at the hands of humans, and must be protected under the law”.
Animal welfare proponents support many uses of animals, while seeking to protect them from harm. They advocate:
Animal welfare groups generally oppose:
They generally support:
Animal welfare proponents acknowledge that using animals as experimental subjects supports important advances in science and medicine. They seek to:
In the U.S., the conservation, use, care, and welfare of research animals is overseen by the federal Interagency Research Animal Committee (IRAC). This group developed the U.S Government Principles for the Utilization and Care of Vertebrate Animals Used in Testing, Research, and Training (U.S. Government Principles). These nine principles govern animal research and serve as the cornerstone of current regulation.
Beginning in 1966, several well-publicized cases of animal abuse brought the humane care and use of animals to public attention. These cases, along with efforts by animal rights and welfare groups, helped shape the current regulatory framework, which is based on animal welfare principles.
In 1966, Life magazine exposed the abuse of dogs at the hands of animal dealers, prompting public outrage.
In 1981, authorities seized Rhesus monkeys from a private research institute in Silver Spring, MD and charged the director with cruelty to animals.
Televised portions of experiments involving baboons at the Head Trauma Laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania in 1984 revealed the suffering of inadequately anaesthetized animals, compounded by a cavalier attitude by research personnel toward the animals’ suffering.
Public outrage over the Life exposé prompted Congress to pass the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act (Public Law 89-544) in 1966. The Act has been amended multiple since then.
Commonly known as the Animal Welfare Act (AWA), this legislation currently governs the humane handling, care, treatment, and transportation of vertebrate animals.
The AWA covers warm-blooded vertebrate species excluding purpose-bred rats, mice, and birds. It requires the registration of research institutions using these animals and the licensing of animal dealers, zoos, and exhibitors with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA).
Enforcement of the AWA is accomplished through several means, including unannounced inspections by USDA staff. Violations can bring severe penalties.
Further legislation, the Health Research Extension Act of 1985 (Public Law 99-158), governs all institutions operated by the U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS) and any non-governmental institution receiving funds from the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) for research involving vertebrate animals.
The Health Research Extension Act mandates that institutions abide by the USPHS Policy on the Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (USPHS Policy), and sign an Assurance committing them to operate according to the principles articulated in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (the Guide).
The USPHS Policy covers all vertebrate animals. Its enforcement relies on self-assessment and annual reporting. Many other federal agencies and some non-governmental organizations also impose these requirements as a condition of receiving funds for research involving vertebrate animals.
The Guide defines procedures for research involving vertebrate animals, personnel training, animal facility and housing, and physical and social environments for particular species.
Both the AWA and the USPHS Policy mandate the establishment of and specific rules for an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). The IACUC is an internal committee that oversees the animal care and use program within each institution that carries out research, testing, or teaching involving vertebrate animals.
Institutions commit to comply with AWA, USPHS policy, the Guide, and, the U.S Government Principles through an Assurance. The Assurance is a legal contract that defines the role and responsibilities of the institution, its IACUC, and the principal investigator/instructor.
At UNH, the IACUC oversees the institution’s program for the humane care and use of vertebrate animals, including inspection of vertebrate animal facilities.
The IACUC has the authority to:
At UNH, the IACUC has five functions:
The UNH IACUC is a standing faculty committee constituted according to federal regulations. USPHS Policy requires at least five qualified IACUC members, including at least:
Membership of the UNH IACUC exceeds these minimum requirements, and includes a broad spectrum of expertise reflecting the range of vertebrate animal use in research and teaching at UNH.
At UNH, all research, testing, or teaching involving vertebrate animals requires:
Advance review and approval by the IACUC is required for all work involving vertebrate animals:
Use of vertebrate animals in research, testing, or teaching without IACUC approval is a violation of UNH policy.
Appropriate sanctions are administered by the Institutional Official (Associate Vice President and Chief Research Administration Official). For example, funding and/or course credit may be withheld, or thesis work will not be accepted by the UNH Graduate School.
At UNH, all applications for use of vertebrate animals in research are reviewed by the IACUC at a convened meeting. The IACUC reviews most instructional protocols via a Designated Member Review process.
Only UNH faculty (including emeriti) and staff members (including postdoctoral researchers) with appropriate authority and access to facilities and resources may serve as a principal investigator/instructor (PI) for applications submitted to the IACUC.
IACUC approval for student projects must be requested by and granted to a UNH faculty/staff member who accepts and retains responsibility for compliance with applicable regulations as the PI.
There are two different UNH IACUC application forms:
PIs must ensure that they use the correct form for the intended vertebrate animal use.
PIs are invited to present their applications at IACUC meetings.
The IACUC meets monthly. PIs must submit completed applications (with signatures) for IACUC review to Research Integrity Services (RIS) at least two weeks prior to the date of the next scheduled meeting. RIS provides administrative support to the IACUC and assists PIs with IACUC applications.
PIs must receive written, unconditional IACUC approval before starting their work with vertebrate animals; that is, they must satisfy any contingencies stipulated by the IACUC resulting from the review of the application.
To receive IACUC approval at UNH, projects must meet seven requirements:
To receive IACUC approval at UNH, projects must meet seven requirements:
In addition, PIs must submit the following for review:
PIs who meet these requirements will have addressed the three Rs:
Replacement: Justification for why non-animal models or invertebrate species cannot replace the use of vertebrate animals
Reduction: Use of minimum number of animals necessary to answer the research question or demonstrate the activity
Refinement: Reduction of incidence or severity of pain and distress experienced by the animals through appropriate anesthetics and analgesics
At UNH, ongoing IACUC approval carries the following five conditions:
The Animal Resources Office (ARO) at UNH provides assistance to UNH PIs in every phase of animal activity. The ARO promotes a cooperative and open relationship among researchers, administration, and regulatory bodies and provides the following services:
ARO staff conduct individual or group training for new personnel upon request, including training in specific procedures, animal handling techniques, surgery, anesthesia, or experimental manipulations.
The ARO is also responsible for developing, producing, updating, and distributing the Manual for the Care and Use of Vertebrate Animals at UNH to all PIs, and appropriate vertebrate animal care and use staff.
Any UNH faculty, staff, or student, or member of the public who has a concern about the treatment of vertebrate animals at UNH should contact the ARO.
After reviewing the concern, ARO staff will report to the IACUC. The IACUC is responsible for reviewing, and if warranted, investigating concerns involving the care and use of vertebrate animals at UNH.
Wherever it occurs, UNH research and teaching activities involving vertebrate animals must be carried out in accordance with the principles and regulations governing humane use of animals. UNH policies and requirements apply to vertebrate animal use:
At UNH, the IACUC is required to inspect and approve all facilities temporarily or permanently housing vertebrate animals before animals are brought to the site. Accordingly, individuals should be cognizant of applicable regulations/guidelines when
Off-campus facilities or sites where animal use is planned may require inspection and approval; it is essential to inform the ARO and IACUC and receive any necessary approval before animals are brought to a site or a project begins.
Work involving vertebrate animals at off-campus sites, whether at a farm, a nature reserve, or on private property, raises additional issues:
The program and principles of vertebrate animal care and use apply to marine animals as well as terrestrial species.
The safety of both animals and humans is important no matter where the work is conducted. UNH policies, offices, and guidelines are in place to minimize risks:
Working with vertebrate animals can result in unpredictable situations and can lead to injuries or illness. The information in the following slides identifies potential hazards of such work and controls available for protection.
UNH has an occupational health program for individuals who work with vertebrate animals. Each UNH faculty or staff member, or student handling or working with live vertebrate animals or unfixed tissue at UNH must participate in the UNH Occupational Health Program for Animal Care Personnel.
Participating in the UNH Occupational Health Program for Animal Care Personnel involves completing a Medical History & Risk Assessment Questionnaire for Persons Handling or Working with Live Vertebrate Animals. This form asks about an individual’s medical history, which is necessary to ensure any potential risk factors are communicated to medical staff and where necessary, protections put in place.
Completed forms should be uploaded to a portal or delivered in-person to UNH Health & Wellness (contact information is located on the bottom of the form). UNH Health & Wellness staff review the form and contact the individual with any questions. The form and any subsequent communication is considered confidential medical information by UNH Health & Wellness.
Once UNH Health & Wellness medical staff have reviewed the form and cleared the individual for working with vertebrate animals or unfixed tissue, they will inform RIS staff. RIS staff then inform the PI that the individual is cleared to work with vertebrate animals or unfixed tissue.
Working with vertebrate animals, whether in a lab or outside, may present different types of hazards:
Physical hazards are those that can physically injure a person. They include sharp objects, uneven walking surfaces, or animals that can bite, knock over a person, or step on one's foot. Injuries that can occur as a result of physical hazards include cuts, bites, burns, sprains, strains, fractures, or crushing injuries associated with contact with large animals (e.g., cows or horses).
To protect against physical hazards, individuals should:
Chemical hazards are materials that come into contact with or enter the body and are detrimental to a person's health or cause physical injury. Chemical hazards can cause:
Chemical hazards can cause physical injury as they may be:
Chemical hazards can enter a body in four ways:
Biological hazards are substances that pose a threat to the health of living organisms through causing illness or disease. They include microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, viruses, mold), human blood or body fluids, or parasitic worms.
People are exposed to biological hazards through bites, cuts, needles, or incidental contact via the mouth, nose, eyes, or compromised skin.
To protect against chemical or biological hazards, individuals should:
Personal protective equipment takes many forms and includes:
The most important consideration with any type of personal protective equipment is to have the correct equipment for the potential hazards present.
There are many types of glove that can protect against chemical materials but that offer no protection against physical hazards. Further, chemical gloves only protect against the chemicals for which they are rated. Individuals should always make sure that they are wearing the correct glove for the task they will perform.
Safety glasses will only protect against physical hazards such as flying objects; they will not protect against liquid splashes. A better protection option when using liquids or chemicals is safety googles, which provide a better seal to the face. If necessary, individuals should use a full-face shield over safety googles.
Individuals who have questions about the selection or use of personal protective equipment should consult their manager, supervisor, or PI. They may also contact the UNH Office of Environmental Health & Safety.
Any injury must be reported to a supervisor and reported to UNH Human Resources (via an accident report) within 24 hours.
Vertebrate animal use in research and teaching is controversial, and opponents sometimes present images and other information about vertebrate animal use in misleading or inflammatory ways. On the other hand, openness and clear communication of the value of vertebrate animal use is essential to maintaining public support of the activity.
In the spirit of protecting UNH’s credibility and the integrity of UNH’s research and teaching activities, UNH has a communication procedure in the event of inquiries about vertebrate animal use in research or teaching.
PIs who use vertebrate animals in their research or teaching activities, as well as vertebrate animal facility managers, are encouraged to talk with students and personnel under their supervision about recording images (including photographs and videos) of animals and the responsible use of any resulting images. This includes recording using cell phones and any public release/use (e.g., via social media, website presentation, publication).
Recording images of vertebrate animals may be allowed in some animal facilities, but not in others. Whether images may be recorded is at the discretion of the PI or facility manager.
Recording images of vertebrate animals should be for professional purposes only. An ARO veterinarian or UNH Media Relations should approve any media content containing images of vertebrate animal use prior to release.
1. As long as the IACUC has approved the activity, no further permits are required.
2. Since only wild vertebrate animals are involved, no IACUC application is needed.
3. The IACUC application must list all vertebrate species that might be trapped, even accidentally – not just the species that are included in the study.
4. IACUC permission is needed only for the vertebrate animals that will be euthanized.
5. The graduate student should review all relevant safety procedures before beginning the study.
6. Undergraduate field assistants do not need to be listed on the IACUC application (just the graduate student and the faculty PI).
7. The laboratory space on campus must be approved by the IACUC before experiments begin.
1. As the fishing activity is occurring independent of the research (that is, the fish would be caught even if the research were not occurring), no IACUC approval is required.
2. The fishing boats must be inspected by the IACUC before the research can begin.
3. The fishermen should be listed as “personnel” on the IACUC application.
5. Only the fish species that will be sampled should be listed.
6. Details of sample processing in the lab do not need to be included in the application.
1. As long as the photographs were not used for professional purposes, then the students did not need the researcher’s approval to use them.
2. The capturing of trapping activities in the photographs was accidental, so the students did not need the researcher’s approval to use the photographs.
3. The graduate student should have forewarned the undergraduate students that they could not use any of the photographs that involved the trapping activities, even for personal use, without the faculty member’s approval.
4. As the supervisor of the undergraduates at the field site, the graduate student should have been more circumspect about his behavior at the field site, including having his picture taken playing around in front of the traps.
5. It is the researcher’s decision whether anyone may record (e.g., video, photograph) vertebrate animals involved in her research.
6. There are no restrictions on the use on social media of images of vertebrate research animals.
Click on the image below to see the case study that was presented at the beginning of this module.
Once you have finished all of the review questions click ’Certify Completion’.